Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground Essay Example for Free

Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground Essay Fyodor Dostoevsky is one of the most influential authors in world literature. This Russian author had written several remarkable novels including Crime and Punishment, The Idiot and Brothers Karamazov. However, before the aforementioned novels were published, Dostoevsky had already gained critical acclaim and recognition for his work entitled Notes from Underground. This novel explores how the freedom of man is undermined by the atmosphere of rationality that dominated the 17th and 18th centuries. Through the novel’s protagonist, the Underground Man, Dostoevsky illustrates how real freedom is manifested in the defiance of reason. The period called the Enlightenment occurred throughout the 17th and 18th centuries (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). During this time, reason governed over every endeavor, and was valued above everything else. The period left no room for superstition or foolishness; rationality reigned supreme (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). Reason was the means in which man and society can develop for the better. European thought was dominated by materialism, liberalism and more importantly, utopianism (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). All of these movements were established on the belief that reasonable and natural-law theories could establish a perfect society (Emerson, 1992). Perfection was only attainable through the application of reason and the manifestation of â€Å"enlightened self-interest† (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). The prevalence of reason strongly influenced and inspired Dostoevsky to write Notes from Underground (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). However, the novel did not convey a message agreeable to the intellectual milieu; instead, it served to criticize its very existence. Notes from Underground is actually a response to another text, entitled What Is to be Done? (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ; Madden, n. d. ). It was written by N. G. Chernyshevsky and was published in 1863. Chernyshevsky was an advocate of â€Å"rational egoism,† a movement which fervently believed that perfection of life could be achieved through rationality and enlightenment (Madden, n. d. ). The â€Å"rational egoists† also upheld principles of natural law (Madden, n. d. ). Dostoevsky disagreed with the belief that rationality and enlightenment were the keys to perfection. He strongly believed that the nature of man was beyond those two elements. He acknowledged man’s capacity for both the rational and the foolish; he even upheld that the irrationality of man was more definite, while the rationality was merely added (Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). Moreover, Dostoevsky was convinced that laws of nature or the principles of reason were not capable of recognizing human individuality, personality, and more importantly, free will (Madden, n. d. ). These beliefs are embedded in the novel, a text which Rozanov considers a critique of reason as a means to perfection (as cited in Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). The novel, in the words of Wasiolek, showed how man can be both rational and irrational, as his actions are the result of the exercise of his own freedom (as cited in Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). Hence, the theme of freedom in the novel is the utmost disregard for reason and natural laws. The protagonist of the novel is the Underground Man, a forty year old man who used to work in civil service (Dostoevsky, 1992). For a protagonist, he is considered an â€Å"anti-hero† (Madden, n. d. ). He is also the antithesis of the time in which he lived; he disagreed with utilitarianism, which prevailed during the 19th century. Utilitarianism was characterized by utilizing â€Å"mathematical formulas and logical proofs† to equate one’s wants with his best interests (Madden, n. d. ). The Underground Man disagrees with this; he attests that man wants to exercise his freedom and could do so regardless if it agrees with his best interests or not. If it is man’s desire to act irrational, he could. Of course, acting irrational is not in anyone’s best interest. However, by being irrational, he was truly able to exercise his freedom. Actions based on desires, instead of reason, enable man to be free. Freedom is thus associated with acting without reason. So in an era where reason dominated, the Underground Man was rather unreasonable. By being unreasonable, he was able to be truly free. In the novel, the Underground Man asserts that science deprives one of freedom. Dostoevsky (1992) writes, â€Å"Science has managed by now to anatomize man to such a degree that we already know that all your wishing, your so-called free will is nothing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 29). The Underground Man then begins his attack on utilitarianism: If someday they should really discover the formula for all our whims and wishes—I mean, what causes them, what laws they’re governed by, how they develop and where they lead in one case or another†¦in other words, an actual mathematical formula—why, then man will perhaps immediately stop wishing†¦Who wants to wish according to graphs (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 29)? â€Å"Whims and wishes† in this quotation refers to the desires of man. The principles of utilitarianism are marked by analysis of people’s desires. These desires undergo scrutiny, as to determine if these desires agree with what is best for the people. However, the act of wishing does not involve analysis or scrutiny. One can desire something for no apparent reason. One may wish for something that may prove harmful in the long run. The exercise of freedom is spontaneous and non-regulated. If one has to base his or her desires from the graphs or formulas of science and math, they would no longer fall under the exercise of freedom. If one is to desire based on the graphs or formulas, it would not be an act of freedom any more. This is because there is imposition involved; the desires are imposed upon by the requirements of science or math. In this situation, the desires of man are dictated by the principles of reason. Thus, freedom disappears upon the use of reason. In the words of the Underground Man, â€Å"For if desires are one day brought into complete accord with reason, then we shall reason instead of wishing† (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 30). The Underground Man continues his argument against utilitarianism by differentiating reason and desires. He states: You see, gentlemen, reason is unquestionably a fine thing, but reason is no more than reason, and it gives fulfillment only to a man’s reasoning capacity, while desires are a manifestation of the whole of life—I mean the whole of human life, both with its reason and with all its itches and scratches (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 31). In this quotation, the Underground Man affirms that while reason is important, it is not the most important thing. The desires of man, through which freedom can be exercised, have a much wider scope than reason. Therefore, the desires of man cannot be reduced to graphs and tables because it transcends them. The Underground Man uses the piano key as a symbol of how reason curbs man’s freedom: He will insist on clinging precisely to his own fantastic dreams, his most vulgar folly, solely in order to confirm himself that men are still men, and not piano keys, which may be played by the hands of natural laws themselves, but which are threatened by this very playing to be brought to a state where it will no longer be possible to wish a thing outside of graphs and schedules (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 34). Piano keys are pressed to make a sound in the process of playing the piano. These keys cannot produce sound on their own; they need to be touched and pressed. The analogy between the man and the piano key is what Dostoevsky used to illustrate his point. By measuring man’s desires with the graphs and formulas to determine whether or not it is in their best interests, man becomes a piano key. This is because man comes under the mercy of reason which plays him. To be manipulated by reason is to be bound by its laws; therefore, it is not freedom. The Underground Man believes that humankind values freedom over reason and best interests (Madden, n. d. ). Freedom means acting out of one’s desires or wishes whether or not the act spoken of is irrational or foolish. In the book, the Underground Man manifests his freedom through several examples. He had committed acts contrary to reason, making him a truly free individual. Hence, the Underground Man was successful in escaping the realm of reason he despises. The book starts with the Underground Man’s admission of a pain. He says, â€Å"I think that my liver hurts† (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 1). Anyone who experiences pain will surely resort to measures to eliminate that pain. This is because pain is suffering, and nobody wants to suffer. In the instance that pain is felt, it is only reasonable that one seeks medical assistance by visiting a doctor. On the contrary, the Underground Man says, â€Å"No, sir, I refuse to see a doctor out of spite† (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 1). This decision is obviously irrational, because he does not want to see a doctor to deal with the pain. In addition, he does not have a valid reason not to go to the doctor. One would presume that he simply takes pleasure in his own pain. A rational man would find this decision as preposterous, as no one ever enjoyed suffering from pain (Madden, n. d. ). However, what appears to be a manifestation of masochistic tendencies is actually the Underground Man’s exercise of freedom. Reason dictates that when one feels pain, that person should visit the doctor. As was earlier discussed, the Underground Man believes that reason limits freedom, because it only acknowledges the desires that would be in one’s best interests. The tolerance of pain and the derivation of pleasure from it is the Underground Man’s way of breaking free from reason. Surely, it is a foolish thing to do, but he does not want to conform to the dictates of reason. He values his freedom, so he refuses to act according to reason. He is a free man; he could do as he pleased. Even if it is contrary to his best interests in prolonging such agony, he still does it because he wished to do so. By tolerating pain and deriving pleasure from it, he successful avoids the system of reason. According to the Underground Man, â€Å"I know better than anyone else that I will only harm myself by this, and no one else. And yet, if I don’t seek a cure, it is out of spite. My liver hurts? Good, let it hurt still more† (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 2)! The Underground Man proceeds with his painful endeavor, this time with a toothache. The fourth chapter of the book opens with his laughter: â€Å"Ha-ha-ha! You will find pleasure in a toothache next! And why not? There is pleasure in a toothache ache too† (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 14). Just like with the liver ache, the Underground Man allows himself to feel the pain of his tooth instead of seeing a dentist. He welcomes the pain, and refuses to seek treatment. A critic of the novel, Mikhaylovsky declares that the Underground Man â€Å"tortures because he wants to, he likes torture. There is neither reason nor purpose here, and, in the opinion of Dostoevksy, they are not at all necessary, for absolute cruelty is interesting† (as cited in Marder, Meyer, Wyshak, n. d. ). Indeed, this is true. The Underground Man does not subject himself to pain for a reason. In fact, he does so to do away with reason. He refrains from seeking medical treatment because he wants to. By indulging in his desire, he exercises complete freedom. Aside from the aforementioned tolerance of pains, the Underground Man had exercised his freedom through irrationality in other ways. He states: I would feel a certain hidden, morbid, nasty little pleasure in the acute awareness that I had once again committed something vile that day, that what had been done could no longer be undone; and I would gnaw and gnaw at myself in silence†¦until the bitterness would finally begin to turn into a kind of shameful, damnable sweetness (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 7). In this excerpt, the Underground Man expresses how he had realized his evil ways by contemplating what he had done. However, instead of wallowing in guilt, the realization ends up being a source of pleasure. How did the Underground Man manifest his freedom through this? The purveyors of rationality would insist that those who know what is in their best interests would not resort to baseness or frivolity. The Underground Man was aware of vileness of his actions; in a way, he was aware it was not in his best interests. However, he did not feel a sense of guilt. The realization of his action that started with bitterness eventually became that of sweetness. He knew what he had done was bad, but this does not change the fact that he derived pleasure from it. His reaction to such vile deeds set him apart from what reason dictates as proper. Because he did not follow the dictates of reason, he had exercised his own freedom through defiance. Reason makes one feel burdened when one commits a nasty or vile action. It supposes that rational ways should be observed, and a nasty or vile action is never rational. He sights an example when one is forced to apologize for a nasty deed. The Underground Man says: Generally, I could never endure saying, â€Å"Forgive me, Papa, I won’t do it again†Ã¢â‚¬â€and not because I was incapable of saying it, but, on the contrary, perhaps precisely because I was all too capable of it. And how I did it (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 16)! In this passage, the Underground Man expressed disagreement with repentance. He believes that one should not apologize for doing something. He finds apologies as deceiving; the claim to never do an act considered vile again seems insincere. In our freedom, we are all capable of doing these acts. Regardless if they are rational or irrational, we all have the capacity to act according to our own free will. The claim â€Å"I won’t do it again† is quite fraudulent, as it is quite understood that anyone can do anything, according to their free will. Thus, it is possible for one to exercise freedom and desire something which is not in one’s best interest. According to the Underground Man: And what if his advantage on a given occasion not only may, but must, lie exactly in choosing for himself the harmful rather than the advantageous? And if this is so, if there can be such an occasion, then the entire rule is shattered to smithereens (Dostoevsky, 1992, p. 22). The rule spoken of here is the belief that man would choose what is in his best interests. Again, the exercise of freedom lies in choosing or desiring something regardless of their nature. In the above quotation, the Underground Man affirms that there will be instances wherein man will choose what is harmful, instead of what is useful, to him. The moment such situation arises, the principle of reason will be disproved. The Underground Man does not believe in the principle that man will act according to what is in his best interests. Neither does he believe that man’s desires can be reduced to graphs of science nor formulas of mathematics. The concept of freedom for the Underground Man is that which is contrary to the dictates of reason. He does not acknowledge that man will commit acts that are in tune with his best interests. This would be a violation of his freedom, as the freedom presupposes one’s capacity for both the rational and the irrational. If one chooses to commit an irrational act, he is merely exercising his freedom. Did the Underground Man succeed in escaping the realm of reason he so despised? The answer is yes. His tolerance of pain and derivation of pleasure from suffering were direct defiance to reason. He had rendered himself completely liberated from the atmosphere of rationality. He did and thought as he pleased, whether or not it was in his best interests. Indeed, he had escaped, and is completely free. REFERENCES Dostoevsky, F. (1992). Notes from Underground (M. Ginsburg, Trans. ). New York: Bantam. (Original work published in 1864). Madden, C. (n. d. ). SparkNote on Notes from Underground. Retrieved March 29, 2008, from http://www. sparknotes. com/lit/underground/ Marder, J. , Meyer, M. , Wyshak, F. (n. d. ). Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground Study Guide. Retrieved March 29, 2008, from http://community. middlebury. edu/~beyer/courses/previous/ru351/novels/UGMan/ugman. html

The Christian Position on Euthanasia :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide

     Ã‚   This essay has chosen to study the largest Christian denomination's attitude toward euthanasia, in order to determine the basic Christian position in the current debate on euthanasia. It is interesting to note that, even within one Christian church like this, there are a host of considerations on the euthanasia question. The rights and values pertaining to the human person occupy an important place among the questions discussed throughout the world today. In this regard, the largest Christian denomination, the Catholic Church, solemnly reaffirmed the lofty dignity of the human person, and in a special way his or her right to life. The Second Vatican Council therefore condemned crimes against life "such as any type of murder, genocide, abortion, euthanasia, or willful suicide" (Pastoral) The progress of medical science in recent years has brought to the fore new aspects of the question of euthanasia, and these aspects, in the Church's view, call for further elucidation on the ethical level. In modern society, in which even the fundamental values of human life are often called into question, cultural change exercises an influence upon the way of looking at suffering and death; moreover, medicine has increased its capacity to cure and to prolong life in particular circumstances, which sometime give rise to moral problems. Thus people living in this situation experience no little anxiety about the meaning of advanced old age and death. They also begin to wonder whether they have the right to obtain for themselves or their fellowmen an "easy death," which would shorten suffering and which seems to them more in harmony with human dignity.    The considerations set forth here, concern in the first place all those who place their faith and hope in Christ, who, through His life, death and resurrection, has given a new meaning to existence and especially to the death of the Christian, as St. Paul says: "If we live, we live to the Lord, and if we die, we die to the Lord" (Rom. 14:8; cf. Phil. 1:20). As for those who profess other religions, many will agree with us that faith in God the Creator, Provider and Lord of life--if they share this belief--confers a lofty dignity upon every human person and guarantees respect for him or her.    Human life is the basis of all goods, and is the necessary source and condition of every human activity and of all society.

Factors Affecting Adolescent Development Essay

  Adolescence is a transitory stage from childhood to adulthood, characterized by significant physical, emotional and social changes. Developmentalists used to view adolescence as a tumultuous stage due to stress of individuals who want to become an adult long before becoming one. But now, a changing perspective is taking place. Adolescence is no longer a stage in life that is full of conflict but one that is full of opportunities to become a better person. Hereditary and environmental factors play an important role in making sure such opportunities are maximized. These factors are crucial in determining how an individual goes through adolescence. Physical Development Puberty is noted with a surge in hormone production and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, causing a number of physical changes (Aacap & Pruitt, 1999). For example, girls begin to develop breast buds, grow hairs on pubic area, legs and armpits, start to menstruate, develop wider hips and grow in height. Boys, on the other hand, may begin to experience enlargement of the adam’s apple, testicles and scrotum, develop facial hairs as well as on the pubic area, armpits, legs and chest, develop deeper voice and also grow in height. Puberty timetable, as well as the characteristics developed during this stage is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors also contribute such as diet and exercise. The aforesaid physical changes are triggered by the pituitary gland, as the hormonal balance leans towards an adult state. The pituitary glands secrete hormones, such as testosterone for the boys or estrogen and progesterone for the girls. Read more:  Factors that influence child develop The major landmark of puberty for the boys is the first ejaculation and menarche for the girls. The age of menarche depends on heredity though the girl’s diet and lifestyle are determinants, as well. To experience menarche, a girl must attain a certain level of body fat. So a girl with a high-fat diet and lives a sedentary lifestyle menstruates earlier relative to a girl with low-fat diet and exercise regularly. Girls who have poor nutrition or experience physical labor at an early age are expected to begin menstruating at later years. Cognitive Development During adolescence, cognitive development is characterized by the ability to think methodically in analyzing all the relationships in a given problem (McCormick, & Pressley, 2007). However, this development takes time and varies from one adolescent to the other. Some may apply logical thinking in school work before they can analyze their personal lives in the same manner. Adolescents begin to see their world in more complex ways which can influence their decision making either in a negative or a positive way. Adolescents should be at what Jean Piaget called â€Å"formal operations† stage where they experience the need to think independently and efficiently, more advance and complex. There are five ways that this ability manifests: (1) to think of possibilities not limited to what is real; (2) to think about abstract ideas; (3) to think about the process of thinking itself; (4) to think at multidimensionality of things rather than to focus at a single issue; and (5) to see things as relative rather than absolute. It is widely accepted that the intellectual capacity is determined by heredity and environment. Studies about intellectual development during adolescence in the field of developmental neuroscience show that â€Å"significant growth and significant change in multiple regions of the prefrontal cortex throughout the course of adolescence, especially with respect to process to myelination and synaptic pruning (both of which increase the efficiency of information processing),† (Steinberg, 2005) To make the most out of these changes, they must be complemented by a positive environment for healthy cognitive development. Adolescents should be encouraged to join discussion about a variety of topics, issues and current events. They should be allowed to think on their own and to share their ideas with others. Stimulating them to think about future possibilities and guiding them towards their goal allow them to even out the wrong decisions they make. Social, Moral and Personality Development Individuals suffer from identity crisis during adolescence. According to Erik Erikson’s Theory of Identity Development, identity crisis is the most important characteristic of adolescents (Erikson, 1968). Although cultures define a person’s identity and thus varies from one culture to another, the accomplishment of this development task has a common denominator for all cultures. Core to his theory is for the adolescent to establish an â€Å"ego-identity† and to avoid â€Å"role confusion† and â€Å"identity confusion†. A sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics and religion must be developed during adolescence. The ego-identity changes constantly as an individual acquires new experience and information through social interaction. According to Erikson, adolescents have to make an account of his/her assets and liabilities and what to make out of them. Adolescents have to find their own identity by examining their past, present and future linked together. However, this is difficult as the past has lost the attachment of family and community tradition, the present is occupied by social change and the future has become more unpredictable. The role of peers during this period is highlighted as they give the sense of acceptance to the adolescent seeking for social approval. Those who are able to receive positive feedback and encouragement turn out to have a strong sense of who he/she is and a feeling of independence and control. Those who fail to find his/her identity are likely to be insecure and confused about themselves and the future. For Robert Havighurst, individuals have to acquire developmental tasks defined as skills, knowledge, functions and attitudes (Turner, 1996). They are acquired through physical maturation, social expectations and personal efforts. Achieving these development tasks lead to happiness and success with later harder tasks while failure in a given developmental task result to lack of adjustment, increase anxiety, social disapproval and helplessness to manage more difficult tasks to come. Some of the developmental tasks are need to be achieved within a time limit which Havighurst called â€Å"teachable moment.† If the task is not mastered during this time, it becomes harder, if not impossible to accomplish. Society plays an important role by providing the socializing agents, as well as the method of reinforcement and punishment, to allow the individual to learn the developmental tasks according to their proper age levels. According to Havighurst, for adolescents aged 12 to 20 years old, their development tasks include: (1) accepting one’s physique and accepting a masculine or feminine role; (2) new relations with age-mates of both sexes; (3) emotional independence of parents and other adults; (4) achieving assurance of economic independence; (5) selecting and preparing for an occupation; (6) developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence; (7) desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior; (8) preparing for marriage and family life; and (9) building conscious values in harmony with an adequate scientific world-picture. References Aacap & Pruitt, David. (1999). You Adolescent: Emotional, Behavioral and Cognitive Development from Early Adolescence Through the Teen Years. NY: Harper Collins Publishers. Erikson, Erik. (1968) Identity: Youth and Crisis. NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. McCormick, Christine & Pressley, Michael. (2007). Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. NY: The Guilford Press. Steinberg, Laurence. Cognitive and Affective Development in Adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Vol.9, No.2 February 2005. Turner, Jeffrey. (1996). Encyclopedia of Relationships Across the Lifespan. NY: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

A Collection of Funny Relationship Quotes

Funny situations occur when you have complicated relationships. Look around you, and youll see that chaotic relationships  sometimes lead to amusing situations. Movies are made about relationships gone bad or just beginning. When you go to a party, you can observe couples and tell which couple had a fight before coming to the party and which one will have a fight after the party. When relationships go sour, it helps to look at the funny side. Instead of being anxious about your love life, make a joke about it and move on. If you have been through heartbreak, laugh at your mistake. The quicker you bounce back, the easier you are able to move on  and develop new relationships. Here are funny relationship quotes that will put a smile on your face the next time you are feeling down over your relationship. Funny Relationship Quotes Linda Festa: The most important thing in a relationship between a man and a woman is that one of them be good at taking orders. Erma Bombeck: Marriage has no guarantees. If that’s what you’re looking for, go live with a car battery. Frederick Ryder: When a man goes on a date, he wonders if he is going to get lucky. A woman already knows. Sarah Dessen: Relationships dont always make sense. Especially from the outside. Jonathan Carroll: You have to walk carefully in the beginning of love; the running across fields into your lovers arms can only come later when youre sure they wont laugh if you trip. Samuel Goldwyn: A bachelors life is no life for a single man. Mark Twain: What would men be without women? Scarce, sir, mighty scarce. Bobby Kelton: The difference between being in a relationship and being in prison is that in prisons they let you play softball on the weekends. Agatha Christie: An archeologist is the best husband any woman can have; the older she gets, the more interested he is in her. Glenn Beck: Remember, beneath every cynic there lies a romantic, and probably an injured one. Benjamin Franklin: Keep your eyes wide open before marriage, half shut afterward. Laurence J. Peter: Its better to have loved and lost than to do 40 pounds of laundry a week. Henry Youngman: Some people ask the secret of our long marriage. We take the time to go to a restaurant two times a week. A little candlelight, dinner, soft music and dancing. She goes Tuesdays; I go Fridays. Ronnie Shakes: Relationships give us a reason to live. Revenge. Rita Rudner: When I want to end a relationship I just say, You know, I love you. I want to marry you. I want to have your children. Sometimes they leave skid marks. Brendan Francis: A man is already halfway in love with any woman who listens to him. Jim Bishop: Watching your daughter being collected by her date feels like handing over a million dollar Stradivarius to a gorilla. Albert Einstein: Women marry men hoping they will change. Men marry women hoping they will not. So each is inevitably disappointed. Jacqueline Bisset: Ideally, couples need three lives: one for him, one for her and one for them together.